In my previous article "Historic Interactions among China, Korea and Japan (I) and (II): A New Chapter to Reading the Mirrors of History," I have generally described the kind of interactions of ancient China with Korea and Japan and the impacts of these interactions in terms of racial origins, politics and military aspects. This article talks about the mutual influences of their relevant ideological and cultural interactions.

Impact of Ancient China upon Korean Culture and Society

As mentioned earlier, Jizi Korea was established in Korea by Jizi who was a relative of the last ruler of the Yin (i.e., Shang) Dynasty (of China), and the people followed him.The last monarch King Zhou of Shang ruled treacherously. He ignored admonition, killed the worthy minister Bi Gan and imprisoned his uncle Ji Zi. King Wu of Zhou then overthrew King Zhou and released Ji Zi from prison.

King Wu understood Ji Zi’s pain of losing the country. He let Ji Zi lead clans to the remote Korea to establish the Jizi Dynasty. At that time, King Wu of Zhou also started dividing and conferring of property to his brothers and ministers who had great accomplishments in the country, and they all became princes. Thus, the Jizi Korea can be regarded as established by one of the princes of the Zhou Dynasty to rule part of the regions of the Liaodong peninsula and the Korean peninsula, and endowed with the task of helping to consolidate the Zhou monarchy.

It was said that Ji Zi educated people in Korea with etiquette and righteousness, and also taught them farming, sericulture and weaving. He promulgated eight decrees; they were mainly "killers sentenced to death; assaulters pay compensation in rice crops; male thieves inflicted as slaves into the homes of the robbed families; female thieves punished as maids.” The convicted could redeem themselves by paying silver money as ransom. However, they were held in contempt in the village, and they or their children could not find marriage partners. Therefore, the development of culture and social systems of ancient Korea at least was synchronized with the Western Zhou Dynasty of China.

At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty, Wiman followed Lu Wan, the King of Yan, during his escape to the Huns, but turned to Jizi Korea. Wiman overthrew Jizi Korea at the end and took the power. Among his subordinates, most came from Yan and Qi, the two countries of the late Warring States period. Therefore, the ideological, cultural and social systems of the Wiman Korea were mostly transplanted from northern China.

After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent troops to exterminate the Wiman Korea, he established prefectures and counties in Korea and implemented direct rule. The Han Dynasty appointed officials to Korea. Some of them lived in great luxury, so the Korean society was gradually affected by the Han Chinese and turned from simple to complex and plain to extravagant. This can be seen from the size and content of funerary objects of the ancient Korean tombs.

How Buddhism and Confucianism Were Introduced from China into Korea

The Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods of China were splendid eras of a hundred flowers blooming in ideology, academic and culture, which promoted a hundred schools of thought like Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism, Ying Yang, Mohism, and Tacticians. But by the time of Han Emperor Wu, he "proscribed all non-Confucian schools of thought and espoused Confucianism as the orthodox state ideology.” Then Confucianism became the unique authoritative ideology.

As for Buddhism, although it had been introduced to China during the era of the Eastern Han Emperor Ming, it was always attached to Daoism. It only began to flourish when the Wuhu Turbulence (caused by the five kinds of non-Han people) occurred in China. At that time, as a result of war, people experienced parting in life and separation by death; they were in the middle of hell on Earth in real life. Concepts that Buddha said like mercy, elimination of pain, all physical existence being vanity and Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss would exist in their next life were reliefs as well as hopes. Buddhism, therefore, gained a broad space for development and rapidly became the state religion in many countries established by the non-Han people. The superpower of Former Qin established in northern China by Fu Jian of the Di people was a representative. Fu Jian not only worshipped Buddhism, but also promoted Confucianism together with his national adviser Wang Meng. He established in the capital an Imperial College and even stepped on the altar of the Imperial College to give speeches.

Korea was then also in an era of wars.  The three countries of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla were in fierce competitions and gradually evolved into the situation of three kingdoms opposing each other. In 371, King Gogugwon of Goguryeo was defeated and died in the war against King Gaero of Baekje. The successor King Sosurim facing the crisis of the country, decided to declare himself a vassal to the Former Qin to become allies and paid tribute for protection. King Sosurim further decided to comprehensively bring in Chinese culture and system to engage in political and religious reform. King Fu Jian of the Former Qin sent eminent Buddhist monk Shundao who brought scriptures and Buddha statues to Goguryeo and started the construction of temples. This was the beginning of Korean Buddhism. King Sosurim also founded Imperial College in the capital to teach students Confucian classics. The academic thinking of Confucianism was subsequently formally introduced into Korea.

In 384, another eminent monk Malananda from Tianzhu (now India) arrived at Baekje from China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He received a grand reception from the 15th King Chimayo of Baekje and began to spread Buddhism. During the era of the 26th King Seong of Baekje, there was an eminent monk Qian Yi who went to Tianzhu to study Buddhism. After returning home (526 AD), he became the founder of the Vinaya School of Baekje. King Seong of Baekje believed firmly in Buddhism, widely constructed temples and in turn introduced Buddhism into Japan. He was an important figure for spreading Buddhism in Japanese history.

Silla was initially relatively opposed to Buddhism. Until the 23th King Beopheung when minister Ichadon voluntarily to become a martyr by adhering to the promotion of Buddhism (527 AD), Buddhism finally was free to be preached.

How Buddhism and Confucianism Were Introduced into Japan

In ancient times, all nations from west to east in north Asia including the present-day Eurasian grassland, northeastern China, the Korean peninsula and Japan believed in one primitive religion. They thought that not only birds, animals, fishes and insects had souls, but that even the Heaven and Earth, sun and moon, stars, mountains and rivers, thunder and lighting, also had spirituality. All the primitive tribes were led by shamans to worship the gods of Heaven, mountains, rivers, trees, foxes, large stones, ancestors, devils and so on. This natural and primitive religion was called ” 珊蠻” in Chinese history books and its modern English translation is Shaman. In Japan it is now called Shintoism. Shaman was a Tungus phrase; it meant the witches who knew how to move the gods and practice the witchcraft.

Until the early sixth century, Japan was still the Shinto world. The Chinese history book Three Kingdoms recorded Queen Himiko as "an elderly who did not marry, served the spirits, confused people with demons and had a thousand maids." The beginning of Volume I of The Chronicles of Japan (The Nihon Shoki) also recorded Amaterasu (the sun goddess), Tsukuyomi (moon god), Amatsu Mikaboshi (evil god), Ho-Masubi and other gods. All these show the authority of Shintoism at the time.

Japan and Baekje started to build a relationship as allies in the fourth century. After Buddhism was brought into Baekje, it naturally and gradually entered into Japan, but only as folklore. In 552, the devout Buddhist King Seong of Baekje sent envoys with a bronze Buddha Shakyamuni and several Buddhist scriptures to Japan and gave them to the 29th Emperor Kinmei of Japan. This was the first official introduction of Buddhism into Japan. The emperor was pleased with what he heard and asked his subordinates whether he could pray to Buddha, without knowing that this actually set off a bitter political struggle that lasted for three decades.

Minister Sogano Iname reported to the throne and said: "Western countries are all praying to Buddha, how can our country not do it?” Omuraji Mononobe Okoshi did not agree. He also reported to the throne and said: "Between the Heaven and the Earth of our country there are one hundred and eighty great gods whom we must worship in all four seasons. If we turn to worshiping foreign gods, I fear the wrath of gods in our country." The emperor then said: “Let the Sogano family try to worship the Buddha first." There were already old woes between minister Sogano and Omuraji Mononobe long ago for the struggle of power. The new Buddhism obviously threatened the traditional Shintoism and became the new hatred of the two sides. Their struggles subsequently became increasingly fierce.

When the 31st Emperor Yomei was about to die, the succession issue of the next emperor finally set off fierce fights between Sogano and Mononobe. The Sogano family and Prince Umayado (later Prince Shotoku) formed an alliance, killed all the Mononobe family members, and supported Prince Hatsusebe to ascend the throne as Emperor Sushun.

The victory of the Sogano faction was also the victory of Buddhism. It was said that before Prince Umayado launched the attack he had vowed to the Four Heavenly Kings to build temples in case of victory. After eliminating the Mononobe family members, Prince Shotoku indeed built the Shitenno-ji in Namba (Osaka) and in addition the Horyu-ji in Yamato (Nara). Sogano Umako also built Hoko-ji in Asuka (in Nara). Buddhism flourished in Japan ever since. The Shitenno-ji and the Horyu-ji still exist today. They are all national treasures of Japan.

According to The Chronicles of Japan, Confucianism was introduced to Japan at an earlier date than Buddhism. In 285, the Baekje king sent to Japan a man named Wang Ren, an official who had the title of “doctor” (being familiar with the Five Classics). The Kojiki: Japanese Records of Ancient Matters (《古事記》) recorded that Wang Ren carried ten volumes of The Analects (《論語》) and one volume of The Kiloword (《千字文》) to Japan. People say that this was the beginning of the Japanese script.

However, the authenticity of the matter is somewhat doubtful. The Kiloword was written by Minister Zhou Xingsi under the command of Emperor Wu of Liang in the South-North Dynasties (in China). It had one thousand, entirely non-repeating Chinese characters. Later it became an important text in China, Korea and Japan for teaching children to learn Chinese characters. However, the time for completing the preparation of The Kiloword could not in any case be earlier than 500 AD. The Chronicles of Japan also recorded that in the 7th year of Emperor Keitai (513 AD), King Muryeong of Baekje sent a Confucian scholar Yang Er to Japan. This statement is more credible.

Development of Buddhism and Daoism in China during Sui and Tang Dynasties

Buddhism and Daoism flourished in both South-North Dynasties of China. But during certain periods, they even over-developed.  Hence there was the reaction of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei putting out Buddhism (445 AD) and Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou twice destroying Buddhism and Daoism (574 and 577 AD, respectively).

In the meantime, the more important development of Buddhism was its gradual transformation from a foreign religion to becoming localized. Fu Jian of the Former Qin respected the venerable Daoan who knew well Confucian classics and Daoist thoughts and began to use the languages and concepts of Confucius, Mencius, Laozi and Zhuangzi for writing comments on a variety of Buddhist scriptures. His disciple Hui Yuan stayed in the Donglin Temple of Lushan during the Eastern Jin Dynasty and similarly mastered the classics of Confucianism, Daoism and Confucianism. He even surpassed his master and attracted the contemporary masters of Confucianism and Metaphysics to come to the mountain and talk with him, or they corresponded with him by letters. This made the Donglin Temple not only the most important Buddhist center of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, but also the strategic town of contemporary ideas and culture.

In the late period of the South-North Dynasties, eminent monk Zhiyi founded the Tiantai school of Buddhism in the Tiantai Mountain of Zhejiang Province. It was based on The Lotus Sutra and was also known as the Hokke Sect in Buddhism. This was a Buddhist sect after modification and much Sinification. In the beginning years of the Tang Dynasty, there was the Garland Sutra that became popular as a result of gaining support from the Tang imperial family.

During the mid-Tang Dynasty, Pure Land Buddhism and Zen Buddhism developed rapidly. This was again a truly significant change of Buddhism. The doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism had been promoted and gradually developed as early as the Northern Wei Dynasty by the eminent Buddhist monks.  In the beginning years of the Tang Dynasty, Master Shandao took over the doctrine and carried it forward. At that time the traditional Chinese Buddhism was a religion belonging to the aristocrats. It had esoteric doctrines that the common people could not understand. But Pure Land Buddhism thought that men and women, whether rich or poor, as long as they believed in the Buddha and often recited the Amitabha Sutra, or simply the word Amitabha, would be escorted by Buddha to leave the drudgery of the secular world and arrive at the Western Paradise. Pure Land Buddhism therefore was the easiest sect to enter. After the An Shi rebellion, people suffered the ravages of war, lived from hand to mouth, parted in life, and separated by death; they could only hope to suffer less in this life and reach nirvana in the next life. Pure Land Buddhism therefore developed in full swing and became the largest Buddhist sect.

The founder of Zen Buddhism was Master Bodhidharma from Tianzhu. It was said that he had stayed at the Shaolin Temple in Songshan facing the wall and mediating. After Bodhidharma, the Zen Buddhism continued for five generations until the Sixth Patriarch Hui Neng (638-713 AD) to finally flourish. The most important difference between Zen and traditional Buddhism is that the latter tends to gradual enlightenment by stressing "not to do any evil – but to cultivate good;” whereas Zen advocates epiphany by stressing "no writing, no outside teaching" and "the principle of the Buddha-nature being lying at the heart of all." Therefore, a modern description is that Zen has a significant proportion of "individualism." The society of the Tang Dynasty after the An Shi rebellion was on the verge of collapse, which disappointed the intellectuals, giving rise to a variety of different ideas. In this kind of era, Zen Buddhism with lively thinking was therefore greatly welcomed. Meanwhile, the state was turned into a situation of having provincial governors separately occupying different regions. Between traditional Buddhism and Zen Buddhism, the provincial governors also chose to support Zen widely. Hence, Zen Buddhism suddenly turned into a powerful new Buddhist sect.

After the middle of the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism once again over-developed. As a consequence, Emperor Wuzong of the Tang Dynasty, and Emperor Shizong of the Later Zhou Dynasty during the Five Dynasties period ordered again the suppression of Buddhism (845 and 955 AD, respectively). In Chinese history, these two events and the aforementioned two events of suppressing Buddhism by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei  and Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou were combined together as the "three Wu Emperors and one Shi Emperor.” Although the damages caused by the campaign of political violence to suppress Buddhism were great, their impacts were short. After the new emperor in succession came to power and lifted the ban, Buddhism quickly restored its old appearance.

However, the over-expansion of Buddhism and its extravagance, reaping without sowing, the phenomenon of advocating superstition, had caused dissatisfaction from many Confucian scholars. In 819, a minister named Han Yu reported to Emperor Xian Zong of the Tang Dynasty by sending a petition to “oppose taking the Buddha bones.” He asked the emperor to stop the ceremony of welcoming the Buddha bones, which was held once every three decades, in order to avoid demonstrating superstition that could make the foolish people follow suit and offended public morals. He also proposed to destroy the Buddha bones by throwing them into water or burning them in order to eliminate the roots of the problem. Emperor Xian Zong of Tang was furious and banished Han Yu to the desolate Chaozhou (now Chaoan in Guangdong).

Han Yu’s petition to oppose taking the Buddha bones at the time might just be a small thing. But from the points of view of religious and ideological histories, it was a major historical event. In terms of ideology, Han Yu took maintaining the Confucian orthodoxy as his responsibility. This so-called "orthodoxy" was derived from the same origin of Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, King Wen and King Wu, Duke Zhou until Confucius and Mencius. Han Yu’s petition to oppose taking the Buddha bones represented the faction of Confucian orthodoxy declaring war against the Buddhism that they considered as a heresy. Although Han Yu was banished, in the later dynasties followers again rose to declare wars against Buddhism.

Impacts of Chinese Sui and Tang Dynasties on Silla Buddhism

In the sixth century, Silla became gradually strong and spared no effort to promote Buddhism. The 27th King Jinheung (who reigned from 540-576 AD) founded in his later years a national educational institution called Hwa Rang Do. The country selected young people from noble families and brought them together to teach them Confucianism, traditional morality, etiquette and norms in order to develop their spirit, physique, erudition and character cultivation. The students were called the Hwa Rang Followers. They all must comply with “five precepts” advocated by the eminent Master Yuan Kuang. The five precepts read: "be loyal to the monarch, filial to the parents, faithful to friends, selective to killing, and never retreat in battlefield combat with enemies.”

The students and teachers of the Hwa Rang Do traveled across great mountains and rivers to enhance their knowledge and experiences. After the Hwa Rang Do students grew up, they all became outstanding civilian court officials or great generals. Later, both King Wulie Kim Chunqiuthey and the famous general Kim Yuxin who cooperated with the Tang Dynasty to exterminate Baekje and Goguryeo and unify the Korean peninsula were all Hwa Rang Followers.

After unification, Silla sent more eminent monks to China and Tianzhu to study Buddhism. When they returned, they separately founded their own factions. Among them, the well-known Master Uisang came to China to become the disciple of Zhiyan who was the 2nd generation master of the Flower-adornment school and the state teacher of Tang. After returning to his country, he established the Flower-adornment school in Silla. Another monk was Master Woncheuk who became a student of the famous Master Xuanzang of Tang Dynasty, and was one of the most important disciples. But he never returned to Silla. Today, on each side of the Xuanzang pagoda inside the Xingjiao Temple stands a tower; one of which is dedicated to the remains of Woncheuk. We can see how noble his status was in the Buddhist community at the time. Another more maverick monk was Master Wonhyo. Although he had been to China, he attained enlightenment by his own inner light. He created the Dharma-nature school which was the special Buddhist sect in Silla.

When the next generation of Silla (781--935 AD) began, exactly the same happened as in the Tang Dynasty after the An Shi rebellion, with society near the verge of collapse and intellectuals being greatly disappointed. Hence ideologically active Zen Buddhism began to gain reception. Meanwhile, local tyrants and forces were gradually expanding. In order to compete with the royal families, they supported Zen Buddhism, built temples in various places and established different schools. Hence, there was the hostility between the so-called Nine Mountain Schools of Zen Buddhism and "five educations for the whole person” of the traditional Buddhism.

After Silla entered the post Three Kingdoms period, the state was in chaos and the population war-ravaged, displaced; people either died under the blade or got cold and starved to death, filling the gullies. People had no hope. The only hope was placed on the next life, therefore the popular Pure Land Buddhism was welcomed and became the largest Buddhist sect in Silla.